Pediatric Drowning
March 1, 2021 25 minutes read
AUTHOR
Daniel Migliaccio, MD, Clinical Assistant Professor, Ultrasound Fellowship Director, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Vice President, AAEM Young Physician Section
PEER REVIEWER
Aaron Leetch, MD, FACEP, Associate Professor, Director, Combined EM and Peds Residency, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson
Pediatric drowning events are associated with consequences varying from transient pulmonary symptoms to devastating neurologic disability. All acute care providers need to be prepared to diagnose and effectively manage a child with this type of injury.
— Ann M. Dietrich, MD, Editor
Introduction
Drowning refers to the process of submersion/immersion into a liquid medium, which results in respiratory difficulty and/or arrest.1,2 Definitions of drowning are widely inconsistent and have led to confusion among medical professionals.3 To prevent the use of nonspecific and outdated terminology, consensus guidelines from the World Health Organization have put forth three specific classes of drowning: drowning death, drowning with morbidity, and drowning without morbidity.4,5,6 The terms “near drowning” and “dry drowning” are no longer recommended as diagnoses and should no longer be used in the description of a submersion injury. Although the vast majority of victims involved in submersion accidents survive, there is a wide range of morbidities, which may be associated with a drowning event, including minimal transient pulmonary symptoms to profound long-term neurological disability.7 Emergency providers frequently encounter victims of submersion injury, and knowledge of the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and management are crucial.
Epidemiology
Each year there are more than 370,000 deaths associated with drowning worldwide.8 Alarmingly, it is estimated that there are potentially 40% to 50% more drowning deaths that are unaccounted for in this figure, since they are classified as “water transport incidents” and not drowning.9 Rates of drowning also are significantly higher in low- and middle-income countries, accounting for greater than 90% of all drowning deaths worldwide.10 Moreover, drowning is one of the 10 leading causes of death in every region of the world for people ages 1-24 years. In the United States, each year there are more than 500,000 drowning events and more than 1,100 deaths. Drowning is the leading cause of accidental death among children younger than 15 years of age.11
The highest incidence of drowning occurs in children younger than 5 years of age, with a second peak occurring in teenage children from 15 to 24 years of age.12,13 Approximately 25% of all drowning victims are children younger than the age of 14 years and more than 50% of all drowning deaths are among those younger than 25 years of age.14,15 The groups of children with the highest rates of drowning in the United States are African-Americans, children in southeastern states, children in areas of poverty, and among children from a low socioeconomic status.16,17,18 Males are at higher risk to drown and are two times as likely to drown than females regardless of age.19,20
With increasing participation in water sports, drowning is more frequent in the summer months and in locations closer to bodies of water, oceans, lakes, rivers, and ponds.21,22 Drowning is a leading cause of death in children younger than 5 years of age in locations where bodies of water are more accessible and with heavy engagement in water sports, such as Florida and California.23,24,25 Regardless of access to a coast, however, it appears most drowning happens inland in bathtubs, ponds, and pools. Drowning is thought to be the most preventable cause of accidental death and injury among children.26
Risk Factors
Multiple risk factors have been associated with an increased risk of drowning. In children younger than 5 years of age, the greatest risk factors include a lack of adult supervision, behavioral disorders, and undetected seizure or dysrhythmic disorders. For older children, a lack of water safety practices and misjudgment in swimming skill have been shown as risk factors associated with an increased risk of drowning. Children with behavioral disorders and children with a greater propensity to higher risk-taking behavior also are at a greater risk for drowning. Perhaps the most important risk factor for drowning worldwide is inappropriate use of alcohol and other illegal drugs, especially for adolescents and young adults.27
Pathophysiology
Drowning injuries initiate after a victim’s airways become submerged in a liquid substance. Initially, there is a stimulation of an innate protective parasympathetic nervous system activation, known as the diving reflex. This reflex leads to peripheral vasoconstriction, central shunting of blood flow, bradycardia, and hypopnea. This reflex was thought to provide some initial protection in patients experiencing submersion injury. However, the stimulation of the fight-or-flight response and activation of the sympathetic nervous system immediately overwhelms the diving reflex and dissipates its protective nature.28 Following the initial diving reflex, a drowning person begins to have a pattern of disorganized breathing, breath-holding, and eventually a reflex inspiratory effort leading to aspiration of liquid.
The liquid that is aspirated creates a dilution effect on surfactant, leading to an alteration in alveolar surface tension, alveolar collapse, and a decrease in lung compliance. This surfactant washout leads to a ventilation/perfusion mismatch with intrapulmonary shunting of blood flow (as these alveoli are not ventilated) and, ultimately, hypoxemia. In addition, fluid that is inhaled enters into the airways and alveoli, leading to the development of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema.
The distinction of the type of water aspirated leading to drowning is irrelevant.29,30 Previously, it was thought that aspirated salt water and its hypertonicity led to a shifting of water into the alveolar space and pulmonary interstitium, leading to pulmonary edema and hypertonic serum. Alternatively, aspirated fresh water or hypotonic solution aspiration was thought to lead to shifting of fluid into the intravascular compartment from the alveolar space, leading to volume overload and electrolyte dilution, such as hyponatremia. This distinction is only apparent in patients who were found dead on arrival, as opposed to nonfatal drowning victims, given that for a shift in electrolytes/blood volume to occur, the person would need to aspirate 11 mL/kg to 22 mL/kg of body weight.31,32,33 Typically, in nonfatal drowning victims, there is less than 3 mL/kg to 4 mL/kg of fluid aspirated, making the distinction between salt and fresh water clinically irrelevant.34,35
Another potential mechanism for the development of hypoxia after submersion injury involves reflexive laryngospasm. On aspiration of a liquid medium, a person may develop a reflex laryngospasm, which leads to hypoxemia. This is followed by aspiration of the liquid into the airways, which worsens this hypoxemia. The reflex laryngospasm was the mechanism previously thought to be involved in “dry” drowning death. This out-of-date term was coined secondary to the absence of fluid in the lungs on autopsy. However, the absence of aspirated fluid has been widely disproven, and all drowning deaths will have some degree of water in airways.36 The term “dry drowning” should be avoided.37
Regardless of the initial mechanism leading to fluid in the airways, there is an ensuing hypoxia, hypercapnia, and acidemia. End organ damage is a result of the lack of tissue oxygenation in patients with submersion injury. Ultimate morbidity, mortality, and outcome in submersion injury are related to the degree of hypoxic end organ damage and, most importantly, are related to the degree of ischemic insult to the central nervous system.38
Clinical Presentation
The end organ effects of submersion injuries or drowning with morbidity are secondary to the hypoxemia that ensues.39 The most commonly affected system is the respiratory system. The aspiration of fluid can lead to a clinical picture akin to any etiology of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema and, in some cases, a clinical picture of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).40 Respiratory failure can ensue, and pulmonary symptoms can develop immediately and/or can occur in a subacute manner. Patient symptoms include shortness of breath and cough. Physical exam findings can include hypoxia, increased work of breathing with tachypnea, accessory muscle use, rhonchi, rales, crackles, and/or wheezing.
Neurologically, hypoxemia can lead to neuronal hypoxia and cellular damage. This cellular damage can lead to cellular apoptosis, a degree of cerebral edema, and an increase in intracranial pressure. It is estimated that approximately 20% of nonfatal drowning victims sustain some degree of hypoxic-ischemic brain injury that leads to an increased risk of long-term morbidity.41,42 The hypoxemia from drowning and the potential hypothermia that ensues after a nonfatal submersion injury can lead to cardiac dysrhythmias. These arrhythmias can include atrial fibrillation, ventricular dysrhythmias, and sinus bradycardia.43
Another frequently encountered complication in patients with a significant submersion injury is renal injury. Renal injury in drowning victims typically occurs secondary to acute tubular necrosis from the hypoxemia and/or the cardiovascular compromise resultant from the shock that may occur secondary to the submersion event. As mentioned earlier, it is relatively infrequent that submersion injuries lead to life-threatening electrolyte disturbances regardless of water tonicity secondary to the quantity of water aspirated in nonfatal drowning victims. Rarely, electrolyte abnormalities may develop as a result of the renal injury from the submersion-related hypoxemia.44,45 Infrequently, drowning victims also may develop a consumptive coagulopathy or disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Diagnostic Studies
In patients who are symptomatic from a submersion injury, chest radiography, such as a plain film chest X-ray, along with laboratory studies should be performed to evaluate for complications of pulmonary aspiration and/or hypoxia-related end organ damage. It is unnecessary to obtain chest imaging and/or laboratory studies in patients who are asymptomatic since they are not predictive of morbidity or the need for hospitalization.46 In addition, initial chest imaging may be normal in patients with submersion injury.
Potential findings on chest imaging include patchy airspace opacities, an increase in perihilar markings, cephalization, and/or diffuse pulmonary edema. (See Figures 1 and 2.) Drowning victims typically do not develop pleural effusions and/or pneumothorax unless these pathologies complicate their hospital course. Neuroimaging also may be indicated in patients with significant submersion injury who develop significant alteration to their mental status to detect the amount of hypoxic-ischemic brain tissue damage. Of note, hypoxic-ischemic brain tissue injury may not be apparent on the initial computed tomography (CT) performed in the emergency department, and the patient may require delayed inpatient advanced neuroimaging such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Figure 1. Chest Radiograph Following Drowning Event |
 |
|
Image courtesy of Ann M. Dietrich, MD. |
Figure 2. Chest Radiograph with Atelectasis |
 |
|
Image courtesy of Ann M. Dietrich, MD. |
The use of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) also can be incorporated in the evaluation of drowning victims. POCUS is readily available, repeatable, and without ionizing radiation. It can be used to monitor a patient during the emergency department observation period, or while the patient is admitted to evaluate the progression of pulmonary injury. Specifically, the degree of pulmonary edema is evaluated by noting the quantity and patterns of B lines present. B lines on POCUS in drowning victims generally will be bilateral and seen in multiple lung zones. B lines result from reverberation artifact created by the presence of fluid in the alveolar space and they appear as a vertical beam extending from the proximal pleura (closest to the transducer) to the bottom of the ultrasound screen. (See Figure 3.) Normal lung, on the other hand, will typically demonstrate A lines. (See Figure 4.) A lines are also created by reverberation artifact, but they appear as multiple horizontal lines that are equidistant from the pleural line. Diffuse B lines in the clinical setting of drowning can be secondary to pulmonary edema and/or acute respiratory distress syndrome. Other nondrowning differential diagnoses for diffuse B lines include cardiogenic pulmonary edema and pulmonary fibrosis.47
Figure 3. Point-of-Care Ultrasound |
 |
|
Point-of-care ultrasound of the lung demonstrating multiple B lines (arrows) originating from pleural line (star) and extending to the bottom of the ultrasound monitor. Typically, a diffuse bilateral thorax B line pattern will be seen in patients with significant respiratory symptoms after drowning. |
Figure 4. Point-of-Care Ultrasound Demonstrating A Lines |
 |
|
Point-of-care ultrasound of the lung demonstrating multiple A lines (arrows) originating from pleural line (star). Note each A line is equidistant from the pleural line. |
Initial Management
Management of patients who survive submersion injuries initiates with prehospital care. Prehospital management focuses on immediate cardiopulmonary resuscitation as indicated. Standard guidelines for basic life support should be followed.
Although the overall rate of cervical spine injury in drowning victims is low,48 prehospital care may need to consider spinal motion restriction if there was a potential associated traumatic mechanism (such as diving, etc.), and/or evidence of intoxication. Concomitant dysrhythmias should be treated via pediatric advanced life support protocols.49
On arrival to the emergency department, drowning victims need to have immediate assessment of their airway. Symptomatic patients should have continuous oxygen saturation monitoring, cardiac telemetry, and end-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring. Submersion injury victims presenting with a Glasgow Coma Scale score of less than 13 and/or hypoxia should be provided supplemental oxygen and potentially ventilatory support.
In patients who are symptomatic but who do not require immediate intubation, supplemental oxygen should be given to maintain oxygen saturation above 94%. Options for oxygenation include noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) such as continuous positive airway pressure or bilevel positive airway pressure (CPAP/BiPAP). The positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) achieved with NIPPV can improve oxygenation and decrease ventilation/perfusion mismatch in patients who have pulmonary edema from a submersion injury.28 Patients who cannot tolerate CPAP or BiPAP can receive a trial of high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC), although the PEEP that can be obtained via HFNC is limited compared to NIPPV.
Ultimately, drowning victims may require tracheal intubation. Endotracheal intubation should be considered if the patient is unable to achieve a partial pressure of oxygen of greater than 60 mmHg in adults and greater than 80 mmHg in children or if there is an inability to maintain an oxygen saturation above 90% despite NIPPV. Similarly, endotracheal intubation is indicated in victims who are obtunded, unable to protect their airway, and/or with significant neurological deterioration.
In addition to airway and breathing assessment and management, the drowning victim should have a trauma exam performed noting any potential traumatic injuries and follow advanced trauma life support guidelines as appropriate. However, it is infrequent that a drowning victim will have concomitant life-threatening trauma and/or spinal injury.
Pediatric drowning victims presenting to the emergency department in cardiopulmonary arrest should be resuscitated according to pediatric advanced life support guidelines. Victims with a shorter submersion duration (less than five minutes), immediate bystander CPR, and rapid presentation to the emergency department should undergo an aggressive cardiopulmonary resuscitation attempt since they have a greater likelihood for favorable neurological outcomes. Similarly, pediatric drowning victims presenting in cardiac arrest with concomitant hypothermia from drowning in cold water (icy water) should receive aggressive and potentially prolonged resuscitative efforts because of the possibility of favorable neurological outcome.50,51
Pediatric victims who are hypothermic (core temperature < 35°C) should be resuscitated while rewarming to a core temperature of 32°C to 35°C.52,53 However, pediatric drowning victims who have a prolonged submersion (greater than 15 minutes) and who are normothermic, aggressive emergency department resuscitation may be avoided as there is extremely poor prognosis for an intact neurological outcome in these circumstances.54,55 A good neurological outcome is more likely when spontaneous circulation returns within 30 minutes of advanced life support, especially when the drowning incident occurs in winter.56 In addition, hyperkalemia (> 10 mmol/L) in hypothermic drowning victims can be used as an indication to consider cessation of resuscitation.57,58 Immediate removal of wet clothing should be performed, in an effort to decrease the potential hypothermia.
Hypothermia Management
Hypothermic victims should be rewarmed via passive (immediate removal of wet clothing) and/or active rewarming techniques. (See Table 1.) Various levels of hypothermia typically will present with specific features. Drowning victims with mild (35-32°C) hypothermia usually have an intact mental status, are shivering, and are usually without organ dysfunction such as cardiac dysrhythmias. They should have passive and active external warming, such as forced warmed air, performed.59 Victims with moderate hypothermia (< 32-28°C) may have an altered mental status, shivering may not be present, and patients are predisposed to atrial dysrhythmias (fibrillation/flutter). Moderate hypothermia patients should be rewarmed via active internal techniques. Similarly, an electrocardiogram (ECG) obtained on patients with moderate hypothermia may demonstrate a J- (Osborn) wave, and the amplitude correlates with the degree of hypothermia. Victims presenting with severe hypothermia (< 28°C) typically are obtunded, have absent reflexes, and are susceptible to ventricular fibrillation and asystole.60,61 Of note, defibrillation and resuscitative drugs/antiarrhythmic agents may be ineffective at temperatures < 32°C.62,63
Table 1. Rewarming Techniques |
||
|
Passive |
Active External |
Active Internal |
|
Remove cold wet clothes |
Warm blankets |
Warm intravenous fluids |
|
Give warm clothes |
Bair hugger |
Warm water lavage (gastric/bladder/rectal/thoracic/peritoneal) |
|
Increase room temperature |
Forced warm air |
Warm humified oxygen via endotracheal tube |
|
Extracorporeal rewarming |
||
Active internal techniques of rewarming hypothermic patients in cardiopulmonary arrest can involve the use of warm intravenous (IV) fluids (38-42°C), warm water lavage (gastric/bladder/rectal/thoracic/peritoneal), and provision of warm humidified oxygen via the endotracheal tube.64 If it is available, extracorporeal rewarming and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) should be a consideration in pediatric drowning victims presenting in cardiac arrest with concomitant hypothermia. ECMO has the fastest rate of rewarming, at a rate of ~7°C/hour.65 A retrospective study demonstrated a 23.4% survival in drowning victims placed on extracorporeal life support during cardiac arrest from drowning.66
In addition, it is important to note the concept of core temperature afterdrop in the management of hypothermic patients. This phenomenon occurs from continued cooling after the patient is removed from the cold environment secondary to the return of cold blood from the periphery to the core. This continued drop in core temperature is frequently encountered during the initial resuscitation, but it typically is transient and should not alter rewarming management and resuscitation.
Pediatric patients presenting with drowning injury and hypothermia also may develop hypotension secondary to a phenomenon known as a “cold diuresis.” Diuresis occurs secondary to peripheral vasoconstriction leading to the central volume receptors sensing a hypervolemia. In turn, this leads to a decreased production of antidiuretic hormone and an inappropriate diuresis and potential hypotension. Intravenous fluid administration may be required to maintain volume status in these patients. However, another etiology of hypotension in drowning victims includes a hypoxia-induced cardiomyopathy, which can lead to a picture of decompensated cardiogenic shock. Fluid administration in this case can create a worse hemodynamic status and potentially cardiopulmonary collapse.
Post-Resuscitation Management
Management for symptomatic patients who are admitted to the hospital is mostly supportive. Pediatric patients who require cardiopulmonary resuscitation, as well as those who require prolonged positive pressure ventilation in the emergency department, should be admitted to an intensive care unit for continuous cardiopulmonary monitoring.67 Continued positive pressure ventilation may benefit in recruiting fluid-filled alveoli and improving oxygenation. It is important that these admitted patients be monitored for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Additionally, drowning victims who obtained a return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) after cardiopulmonary arrest may require continuous pressor support with epinephrine.
The routine use of antibiotics has not been demonstrated to improve outcome and should only be reserved for evidence of pulmonary infection and/or submersion in grossly contaminated water. Coverage for species such as Pseudomonas and/or Aeromonas species should be considered in these circumstances.68 In cases of submersion in grossly contaminated water, antibiotic selection should include an antipseudomonal beta lactam.68 Systemic glucocorticoids often are given for patients with significant pulmonary involvement after a submersion event, but they have not been shown to improve outcomes.
Submersion injury can lead to hypoxic-ischemic brain injury and associated cerebral edema. Intensive care management may include attempts to manage the associated increase in intracranial pressure with hypertonic saline, mannitol, and/or loop diuretics. These attempts to decrease intracranial pressure should be considered but have failed to demonstrate significant benefit in long-term neurological disability in drowning victims.67 Similarly, pediatric victims of drowning who undergo aggressive post-resuscitation care, such as induced hypothermia, induced coma or paralysis, and invasive intracranial monitoring, have not been shown to have improved long-term neurological outcomes.45
Admission/Discharge Planning
Patients who present to the emergency department with an intact mental status and an oxygen saturation above 95% on room air are considered low risk for complications and should be monitored in the emergency department for approximately six to eight hours. If after this period of observation the patient remains asymptomatic or minimally symptomatic with a normal pulmonary examination (absence of rhonchi, rales or wheezing, increased work of breathing as well as an oxygen saturation above 95% on room air), they can be discharged home safely if the child has a safe social disposition and appropriate adult supervision.69,70 Strict return precautions should be discussed and include the occurrence of pulmonary symptoms such as cough, shortness of breath, development of fever, and/or any neurological symptoms. If after the period of observation the victim develops an oxygen requirement or abnormal pulmonary exam findings, such as rales, rhonchi, or increased work of breathing, the patient should be admitted to the hospital to a monitored setting until symptoms and/or hypoxia are resolved. Other indications for hospital admission are detailed in Table 2.
Table 2. Indications for Hospital Admission for Nonfatal Drowning |
|
Prognosis
Data are limited regarding the survival rate post-drowning secondary to inadequacies in data reporting. In addition, the incidence of long-term morbidity from neurological complications has varied widely.71 However, the majority of patients involved in a submersion incident who are asymptomatic, with stable vital signs and normal neurological exam on presentation to the emergency department, will survive with minimal to no long-term disability. Similarly, drowning victims requiring hospital admission and/or who had a submersion injury that did not require first responder or emergency department cardiopulmonary resuscitation will typically recover within 48 hours. Infrequently, submersion victims will develop a delayed acute respiratory distress syndrome and will require prolonged hospitalization and can develop significant morbidity and risk for mortality.
On the contrary, drowning victims who require CPR at the scene or in the emergency department have a poor prognosis.55,72 In the same light, victims who arrived to the emergency department with an unstable cardiorespiratory status and/or poor mental status/stupor have been shown to have a higher likelihood of long-term morbidity and mortality from hypoxic-ischemic central nervous system (CNS) damage.73,74 There is an approximate 20% mortality rate among pediatric patients who require cardiopulmonary resuscitation at the scene of the incident. Of those who do survive, approximately 5% will have significant long-term CNS damage from hypoxic-ischemic neurological insult.73
Several other prognostic factors have been correlated with a worse prognosis in patients with submersion injuries. (See Table 3.) These include duration of submersion greater than five minutes, delayed time to basic life support, a prolonged resuscitative effort, a Glasgow Coma Scale score of less than 5 on emergency department presentation, severe acidosis with an arterial blood pH less than 7.1 on presentation, persistent and prolonged apnea, as well as the requirement of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the emergency department.75 Worse outcomes also have been seen in patients with concomitant suspected drug and/or alcohol abuse.
Table 3. Prognostic Indicators for Worse Outcomes in Drowning Victims |
|
There have been rare case reports of pediatric survival after cardiac arrest following an ice water submersion. This is thought to be secondary to the benefits of hypothermia.28,75 It is believed that cold water leads to CNS cooling prior to significant hypoxic tissue damage.26 However, available data have failed to demonstrate any favorable survival among victims with prolonged submersion greater than 15 minutes, whether in cold or warm liquid medium.76 Case reports also have failed to demonstrate any significant survival after a submersion of greater than 60 minutes.76 In addition, there has been no demonstrated difference in survival rates of pediatric victims as compared to adults with regard to water temperature.76,77,78
Prevention
Most cases of pediatric drowning are preventable. Prevention measures, such as secure fencing and appropriate enclosures/gating of swimming pools, can prevent children younger than 4 years of age from being exposed to the body of water and potentially decrease the incidence of drowning by 80%.23,79 Similarly, it is important that children have adequate adult supervision and use protective personal flotation devices. It is also crucial that parents are educated regarding the possibility of toddlers drowning in extremely shallow areas of water, including bathtubs, buckets, and toilets, if there is inadequate supervision. The American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Injury, Violence and Poison Prevention has made available technical support on drowning prevention to assist in instructing community programs.80,81 Similarly, the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have published online materials to guide nonmedical personnel and parents to prevent drowning injuries.5,82
REFERENCES
- Papa L, Hoelle R, Idris A. Systematic review of definitions for drowning incidents. Resuscitation 2005;65:255.
- Idris AH, Berg R, Bierens J, et al. Recommended guidelines for uniform reporting of data from drowning: The “Utstein style.” Circulation 2003;108:2565-2574.
- Hawkins SC, Sempsrott J, Schmidt A. News: ‘Drowning’ in a sea of misinformation. Emerg Med News 2017;39:1.
- van Beeck EF, Branche CM, Szpilman D, et al. A new definition of drowning: Towards documentation and prevention of a global public health problem. Bull World Health Organ 2005;83:853-856.
- World Health Organization. Global Report on Drowning: Preventing a Leading Killer. 2014. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/global-report-on-drowning-preventing-a-leading-killer
- Richards DB, Jacquet GA. Drowning. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, et al (eds). Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice, 8th ed. Mosby, Inc.; 2014:1941-1944.
- Vanden Hoek TL, Morrison LJ, Shuster M, et al. Part 12: Cardiac arrest in special situations: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2010;122(18 Suppl 3):S829.
- Salomez F, Vincent JL. Drowning: A review of epidemiology, pathophysiology, treatment and prevention. Resuscitation 2004;63:261-268.
- Linnan M, Rahman A, Scarr J, et al. Child drowning: Evidence for a newly recognized cause of child mortality in low and middle income countries in Asia. Working Paper 2012-07, Special Series on Child Injury No. 2. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research.
- World Health Organization. Global Health Estimates 2012 (released 2014).
- Peden M, Oyegbite K, Ozanne-Smith J, et al, eds. World report on child injury prevention. World Health Organization and UNICEF; 2008.
- Bowman SM, Aitken ME, Robbins JM, Baker SP. Trends in US pediatric drowning hospitalizations, 1993-2008. Pediatrics 2012;129:275.
- Judy K. Unintentional Injuries in pediatrics. Pediatr Rev 2011;32:431.
- Seeyave DM, Brown KM. Environmental Emergencies, Radiological Emergencies, Bites and Stings. In: Shaw KN, Bachur RG, eds. Fleisher & Ludwig’s Textbook of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, 7th ed. Wolters Kluwer; 2016.
- Quan L, Cummings P. Characteristics of drowning by different age groups. Inj Prev 2003;9:163-168.
- Saluja G, Brenner RA, Trumble AC, et al. Swimming pool drownings among US residents aged 5-24 years: Understanding racial/ethnic disparities. Am J Public Health 2006;96:728.
- El Sibai R, Bachir R, El Sayed M. Submersion injuries in the United States: Patients characteristics and predictors of mortality and morbidity. Injury 2018;49:543.
- Yang L, Nong QQ, Li CL, et al. Risk factors for childhood drowning in rural regions of a developing country: A case-control study. Inj Prev 2007;13:178-182.
- World Health Organization. Drowning fact sheet. Reviewed September 2016. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drowning.
- Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Web-based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS) [online]. cited May 3, 2012.
- Quan L, Cummings P. Characteristics of drowning by different age groups. Inj Prev 2003;9:163.
- DeNicola LK, Falk JL, Swanson ME, et al. Submersion injuries in children and adults. Crit Care Clin 1997;13:477.
- Brenner RA. Prevention of drowning in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatrics 2003;112:440.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nonfatal and fatal drownings in recreational water settings--United States, 2001-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:447.
- Bowman SM, Aitken ME, Robbins JM, Baker SP. Trends in US pediatric drowning hospitalizations, 1993-2008. Pediatrics 2012;129:275.
- Peden MM, McGee K. The epidemiology of drowning worldwide. Inj Control Saf Promot 2003;10:195-199.
- Ahlm K, Saveman BI, Björnstig U. Drowning deaths in Sweden with emphasis on the presence of alcohol and drugs – a retrospective study, 1992-2009. BMC Public Health 2013;13:216.
- Layon AJ, Modell JH.Drowning: Update 2009. Anesthesiology 2009;110:1390.
- Ibsen LM, Koch T. Submersion and asphyxial injury. Crit Care Med 2002;30(11 Suppl):S402.
- Modell JH. Drowning. N Engl J Med 1993;328:253.
- Modell JH, Moya F. Effects of volume of aspirated fluid during chlorinated fresh water drowning. Anesthesiology 1966;27:662.
- Modell JH, Davis JH. Electrolyte changes in human drowning victims. Anesthesiology 1969;30:414.
- Modell JH, Moya F, Newby EJ, et al. The effects of fluid volume in seawater drowning. Ann Intern Med 1967;67:68.
- Orlowski JP, Szpilman D. Drowning. Rescue, resuscitation, and reanimation. Pediatr Clin North Am 2001;48:627.
- Harries M. Near drowning. BMJ 2003;327:1336.
- Kloeck W, Cummins RO, Chamberlain D, et al. Special resuscitation situations: An advisory statement from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation 1997;95:2196-2210.
- Schmidt A, Sempsrott J, Hawkins S. Special Report: The myth of dry drowning remains at large. Emerg Med News 2018;40:1,22-22.
- Battaglia JD, Lockhart CH. Drowning and near-drowning. Pediatr Ann 1977;6:270.
- Son KL, Hwang SK, Choi HL. Clinical features and prognostic factors in drowning children: A regional experience. Korean J Pediatr 2016;59:212-217.
- Bierens JJ, Knape JT, Gelissen HP. Drowning. Curr Opin Crit Care 2002;8:578.
- Sarnaik AP, Preston G, Lieh-Lai M, Eisenbrey AB. Intracranial pressure and cerebral perfusion pressure in near-drowning. Crit Care Med 1985;13:224.
- Gonzalez-Rothi RJ. Near drowning: Consensus and controversies in pulmonary and cerebral resuscitation. Heart Lung 1987;16:474.
- Rivers JF, Orr G, Lee HA. Drowning. Its clinical sequelae and management. Br Med J 1970;2:157.
- Yagil Y, Stalnikowicz R, Michaeli J, Mogle P. Near drowning in the dead sea. Electrolyte imbalances and therapeutic implications. Arch Intern Med 1985;145:50.
- Omar HR, Mirsaeidi M, Bosco G, et al. Cardiovascular complications and mortality determinants in near drowning victims: A 5-year retrospective analysis. J Crit Care 2017;37:237.
- Richards DB, Jacquet GA. Drowning. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, et al (eds). Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice, 8th ed. Mosby, Inc.; 2014:1941-1944.
- Marin JR, Lewiss RE; American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine; Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, Academy of Emergency Ultrasound; American College of Emergency Physicians, Pediatric Emergency Medicine Committee; World Interactive Network Focused on Critical Ultrasound. Point-of-care ultrasonography by pediatric emergency medicine physicians. Pediatrics 2015;135:e1113-e1122.
- Caglar D, Quan L. Drowning and Submersion Injury. In: Kliegman RM, Stanton BF, St. Geme J, et al. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 20th ed. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2015:3464.
- Lavonas EJ, Drennan IR, Gabrielli A, et al. Part 10: Special Circumstances of Resuscitation: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2015;132(18 Suppl 2):S501-S518.
- Lexow K. Severe accidental hypothermia: Survival after 6 hours 30 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Arctic Med Res 1991;50 (Suppl 6):112-114.
- Kim JH, Lee JE, Kim BK, et al. Hypothermic cardiac arrest. Indian J Pediatr 2007;74:765-767.
- Giesbrecht GG. Cold stress, near drowning and accidental hypothermia: A review. Aviat Space Environ Med 2000;71:733.
- Jolly BT, Ghezzi KT. Accidental hypothermia. Emerg Med Clin North Am 1992;10:311.
- Crowe S, Mannion D, Healy M, et al. Paediatric near-drowning: Mortality and outcome in a temperate climate. Ir Med J 2003;96:274.
- Nichter MA, Everett PB. Childhood near-drowning: Is cardiopulmonary resuscitation always indicated? Crit Care Med 1989;17:993.
- Kieboom JK, Verkade HJ, Burgerhof JG, et al. Outcome after resuscitation beyond 30 minutes in drowned children with cardiac arrest and hypothermia: Dutch nationwide retrospective cohort study. BMJ 2015;350:h418.
- Brugger H, Durrer B, Elsensohn F, et al. Resuscitation of avalanche victims: Evidence-based guidelines of the international commission for mountain emergency medicine (ICAR MEDCOM): Intended for physicians and other advanced life support personnel. Resuscitation 2013;84:539-546.
- Schaller MD, Fischer AP, Perret CH. Hyperkalemia. A prognostic factor during acute severe hypothermia. JAMA 1990;264:1842-1845.
- Ducharme MB, Giesbrecht GG, Frim J, et al. Forced-air rewarming in -20 degrees C simulated field conditions. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997;813:676-681.
- Brown D. Hypothermia. In: Tintinalli JE, Stapczynski JS, Ma OJ, eds. Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, ed 8. McGraw-Hill; 2016:1357-1365.
- Michael T. Cold Injuries. In: Tintinalli JE, Stapczynski J, Ma O, et al, eds. Tintinalli’s Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide, 8e. McGraw-Hill; 2016.
- Kornberger E, Lindner KH, Mayr VD, et al. Effects of epinephrine in a pig model of hypothermic cardiac arrest and closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation combined with active rewarming. Resuscitation 2001;50:301-308.
- Boddicker KA, Zhang Y, Zimmerman MB, et al. Hypothermia improves defibrillation success and resuscitation outcomes from ventricular fibrillation. Circulation 2005;111:3195-3201.
- Plaisier BR. Thoracic lavage in accidental hypothermia with cardiac arrest–report of a case and review of the literature. Resuscitation 2005;66:99-104.
- Dunne B, Christou E, Duff O, Merry C. Extracorporeal-assisted rewarming in the management of accidental deep hypothermic cardiac arrest: A systematic review of the literature. Heart Lung Circ 2014;23:1029-1035.
- Burke CR, Chan T, Brogan TV, et al. Extracorporeal life support for victims of drowning. Resuscitation 2016;104:19-23.
- Spack L, Gedeit R, Splaingard M, Havens PL. Failure of aggressive therapy to alter outcome in pediatric near-drowning. Pediatr Emerg Care 1997;13:98.
- Ender PT, Dolan MJ. Pneumonia associated with near-drowning. Clin Infect Dis 1997;25:896.
- Zuckerbraun NS, Saladino RA. Pediatric drowning: Current management strategies for immediate care. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med 2005;6:49-56.
- Causey AL, Tilelli JA, Swanson ME. Predicting discharge in uncomplicated near-drowning. Am J Emerg Med 2000;18:9.
- Weinstein MD, Krieger BP. Near-drowning: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and initial treatment. J Emerg Med 1996;14:461.
- Crowe S, Mannion D, Healy M, et al. Paediatric near-drowning: Mortality and outcome in a temperate climate. Ir Med J 2003;96:274.
- Garner AA, Barker CL, Weatherall AD. Retrospective evaluation of prehospital triage, presentation, interventions and outcome in paediatric drowning managed by a physician staffed helicopter emergency medical service. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2015;23:92.
- Gonzalez-Luis G, Pons M, Cambra FJ, et al. Use of the Pediatric Risk of Mortality Score as predictor of death and serious neurologic damage in children after submersion. Pediatr Emerg Care 2001;17:405.
- Soar J, Perkins GD, Abbas G, et al. European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2010 Section 8. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances: Electrolyte abnormalities, poisoning, drowning, accidental hypothermia, hyperthermia, asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac surgery, trauma, pregnancy, electrocution. Resuscitation 2010;81:1400-1433.
- Quan L, Mack CD, Schiff MA. Association of water temperature and submersion duration and drowning outcome. Resuscitation 2014;85:790-794.
- Szpilman D, Bierens JJ, Handley AJ, Orlowski JP. Drowning. N Engl J Med 2012;366:2102.
- Suominen P, Baillie C, Korpela R, et al. Impact of age, submersion time and water temperature on outcome in near-drowning. Resuscitation 2002;52:247.
- Denny SA, Quan L, Gilchrist J, et al. Prevention of drowning. Pediatrics 2019;143:e20190850.
- Weiss J; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Injury, Violence, and Poison Prevention. Prevention of drowning. Pediatrics 2010;126:e253.
- Conover K, Romero S. Drowning prevention in pediatrics. Pediatr Ann 2018;47:e112.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Drowning prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/safechild/drowning/
Pediatric drowning events are associated with consequences varying from transient pulmonary symptoms to devastating neurologic disability. All acute care providers need to be prepared to diagnose and effectively manage a child with this type of injury.
You have reached your article limit for the month. Subscribe now to access this article plus other member-only content.
- Award-winning Medical Content
- Latest Advances & Development in Medicine
- Unbiased Content